In 1998, Science reporter Robert Service described a plant technology that caused genetically modified crops to produce sterile seeds, forcing farmers to purchase them every year. It was the so-called “Terminator Technology,” patented by the seed company Delta & Pine Land, a subsidiary of Monsanto, together with the United States Department of Agriculture.

The patent was granted to Delta & Pine Land (D&PL), and the technology included genetic “on-and-off switches” in the seeds of genetically modified plants, which produced a toxin in their own seeds that rendered them sterile.

For Delta and other companies, Terminator Technology meant “safeguarding” their investments in plant breeding. However, its commercialization carried serious consequences for impoverished farmers and contributed to the erosion of crop biodiversity.

Ultimately, the Terminator Technology that Monsanto had planned to commercialize was withdrawn by the company’s CEO, Robert Shapiro, yielding to international pressure not to develop or sell sterile seed technology.

Although the technology never bore fruit, it proved to be a complicated move for those defending genetically modified foods as a “safe alternative” to address global malnutrition and food security. That said, not all companies producing genetically modified foods shared these profit-driven goals.

The Beginning of Genetically Modified Food Commercialization

Genetically modified plants have been commercially available since 1996, following decades of research in modern biotechnology. However, the approval of these organisms for human or animal consumption requires a rigorous assessment protocol to demonstrate their safety, according to the book Transgénicos, grandes beneficios, ausencia de daños y mitos, published in 2017 by El Colegio Nacional and coordinated by Francisco Bolívar Zapata.

Techniques for Producing Genetically Modified Plants

One of the most widely used methods to produce genetically modified plants involves Agrobacterium tumefaciens, a soil bacterium capable of infecting plant cells and transferring a defined segment of its DNA into the plant cell through infection.

Today, several other techniques exist, including biolistics, sonication, liposomes, viral vectors, chemical methods, silicon carbide fibers, the floral dip method, microinjection, and microlaser treatment, depending on the species being transformed.

The Flavr Savr Tomato Case

As early as 1988, the company Calgene had approval from the U.S. government to conduct field trials with a tomato whose genetic modification delayed ripening, thereby extending its shelf life along the supply chain.

It was not until 1994 that the Flavr Savr tomato reached the market, even gaining approval in Mexico. By 1996, however, it was withdrawn after several unexpected effects were observed, such as softer skin, an unusual taste, and compositional changes that, while not affecting its safety for consumption, failed to stand out compared to other producers and came at a higher cost.

For many companies interested in genetically modified foods, this case served as a lesson that the very label meant to distinguish them could end up being counterproductive.

The SunUp Papaya

Among the list of genetically modified foods currently grown and consumed in different parts of the world, added traits range from herbicide resistance during cultivation to enhanced vitamin or nutrient content.

The case of the SunUp papaya is different. It was developed in the 1990s with the goal of surviving the papaya ringspot virus, which was devastating crops on Puna Island in Hawaii.

The genetic code of Carica papaya lacked natural resistance to the virus. Using particle bombardment transformation, a group of researchers developed the transgenic “SunUp” papaya, which has been consumed in Hawaii and exported to Canada, the United States, and Japan for three decades, with no negative effects reported in consumers to date.

The List of Genetically Modified Foods

It is estimated that at least 35 countries partially allow the cultivation of genetically modified foods, including Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, the Czech Republic, Honduras, Malawi, Mexico, Myanmar, Nigeria, Pakistan, Paraguay, the Philippines, Portugal, South Africa, Slovakia, Spain, Sudan, Eswatini, the United States, Uruguay, Vietnam, Zambia, Kenya, Zimbabwe, Burkina Faso, and Cuba.

Some of the traits found in these different types of genetically modified foods include resistance to herbicides, viruses, and pests, as well as improved nutritional quality. As of July 2024, among the foods approved in some of these countries—considered transgenic “events” (rather than conventional varieties, which are not laboratory-modified)—are:

• Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) — animal forage.
• Apple (Malus × domestica) — fruit, human consumption.
• Argentine canola (Brassica napus) — edible oil, human consumption.
• Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) — seeds for edible oil.
• Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) — legume, human consumption.
• Chicory (Cichorium intybus) — edible roots and leaves, human consumption.
• Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) — seeds processed into edible oil, food byproduct.
• Eggplant (Solanum melongena) — vegetable, human consumption.
• Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) — seeds and edible oil, human consumption.
• Maize (Zea mays L.) — grain, forage, human and animal consumption.
• Papaya (Carica papaya) — fruit, human consumption.
• Pineapple (Ananas comosus) — fruit, human consumption.
• Polish canola (Brassica rapa) — edible oil, human consumption.
• Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) — tuber, human consumption.
• Rice (Oryza sativa L.) — cereal, human consumption.
• Australian banana (QCAV-4).
• Soybean (Glycine max L.) — grain, oil, forage, human and animal consumption.
• Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) — sugar, human consumption.
• Wheat (Triticum aestivum) — cereal, human consumption.

Likewise, within the food supply chain, some animals intended for human consumption are fed transgenic feed. In the United States, genetically modified animals such as AquAdvantage salmon and GalSafe pork are also consumed.

Does Not Cultivate, but Imports

Although many European Union countries do not cultivate GMOs, Europe is one of the largest consumers worldwide. All EU countries annually import more than 30 million tons of biotech maize and soybean for animal feed, making the continent the largest regional consumer of GMOs in the world.

The EU allows the import of certain genetically modified foods for use as animal feed, direct human consumption, or as ingredients. Approved products include some types of maize, soybean, canola, and cotton, most developed by companies such as Bayer or Corteva. Unlike other regions, the EU also authorizes the use of genetically modified sugar beet. Only Spain and Portugal have cultivated a type of genetically modified maize (Bt maize) for the past 28 years.

In Africa, at least 11 countries allow the cultivation and consumption of genetically modified foods, particularly maize, soybean, wheat, canola, and rice.

For now, debates over the consumption, importation, or cultivation of genetically modified foods remain ongoing from multiple angles—scientific, biotechnological, and ethical—across several regions of the world, given their relevance to food insecurity.

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